Method and system for tuning blockchain scalability, decentralization, and security for fast and low-cost payment and transaction processing

ABSTRACT

A method for sharing data between blockchains in a multi-chain network comprising accessing a first block on a first blockchain of a multi-chain network, generating a cryptographic hash from the first block, defining a first anchor hash, recording the first anchor hash to a second block on a second blockchain of a multi-chain network, receiving a plurality of account addresses associated with the first and second blockchains and an account state for each account associated with the plurality of account addresses, a plurality of transactions, and a plurality of transaction receipts, generating a world state trie comprising a mapping between the first plurality of account addresses and the account states, a transactions trie comprising the plurality of transactions, and a transaction receipts trie comprising the plurality of transactions receipts, and root hashes thereof, and recording the root hashes to each block of the first and second blockchains.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 120 and is acontinuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/135,701 filed onSep. 19, 2018 and titled Method and System for Tuning BlockchainScalability, Decentralization, and Security for Fast and Low-CostPayment and Transaction Processing, which in turn is acontinuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/119,163filed on Aug. 31, 2018 and titled Method and System for TuningBlockchain Scalability for Low-Cost Payment and Transaction Processing,which in turn is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.15/942,604 filed on Apr. 2, 2018 and titled Method and System for TuningBlockchain Scalability for Fast and Low-Cost Payment and TransactionProcessing, which in turn claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) ofU.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/484,555 filed on Apr.12, 2017 and titled Method and System for Tuning Blockchain Scalability,and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 62/620,616 filed onJan. 23, 2017 and titled Fast & Low Cost Payment and TransactionProcessing on Blockchain Networks, the entire contents of which areincorporated herein by reference. U.S. patent application Ser. No.16/135,701 further claims benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 120 and is acontinuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/127,283titled Tokens or Crypto Currency Using Smart Contracts and Blockchainsfiled Sep. 11, 2018, which in turn claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/557,820 titledAdditional Features of CoinBank and nCash NCC Tokens filed Sep. 13,2017, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 62/618,784titled Additional Features of CoinBank and nCash NCC Tokens, filed Jan.18, 2018, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein byreference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to blockchain-scalability, fast andlow-cost payment and transaction processing on blockchain networks.

BACKGROUND

Blockchain is a distributed and public ledger which maintains records ofall the transactions. A blockchain network is a truly peer-to-peernetwork and it does not require a trusted central authority orintermediaries to authenticate or to settle the transactions or tocontrol the network infrastructure. Users can interact and transact withthe blockchain networks through Externally Owned Account (EOAs), whichare owned and controlled by the users. Each EOA has a balance (incertain units of a Cryptocurrency associated with the Blockchainnetwork) associated with it. EOAs do not have any associated code. Alltransactions on a blockchain network are initiated by EOAs. Theseaccounts can send transactions to other EOAs or contract accounts.Another type of accounts support by second generation programmableBlockchain platforms are the Contract Accounts. A Contract Account iscreated and owned by an EOA and is controlled by the associated contractcode which is stored with the account. The contract code execution istriggered by transactions sent by EOAs or messages sent by othercontracts.

Blockchain networks can either be public or private. Public blockchainnetworks are free and open to all and any user can create an account andparticipate in the consensus mechanism on a public blockchain and viewall the transactions on the network. Private blockchain networks areusually controlled and operated by a single organization and thetransactions can be viewed only by the users within the organization.Public blockchain networks are usually unpermissioned or permissionless,as any node can participate in consensus process. Some public blockchainnetworks adopt a permissioned model where the consensus process iscontrolled by a pre-selected set of nodes. Private blockchain networksusually adopt the permissioned model. While public blockchain networkscan be considered as fully decentralized, private blockchain networksare partially decentralized.

Organizations can have multiple private blockchain networks where eachnetwork is dedicated to a specific use case or department or businessvertical. The blockchain networks within an organization may be createdeither using the same blockchain platform or technology or withdifferent platforms or technologies.

On each blockchain network, a user can create multiple Externally OwnedAccounts (EOAs). Each Externally Owned Account (EOA) has apublic-private keypair associated with it. The account address isderived from the public key. When a new EOA is created, a keyfile iscreated which has the public and private keys associated with theaccount. The private key is encrypted with the password which isprovided while creating the account. For sending transactions to otheraccounts, the private key and the account password are required.

Existing Blockchain platforms face scalability concerns. The transactionvalidation and consensus mechanisms (such as proof-of-work) used inblockchain networks and other parameters such as the block-size andblock-time determine how fast the network can process and confirm thetransactions. While commercial payment networks can process thousands oftransactions per second, blockchain networks can take from a few secondsto several minutes for a transaction to be confirmed and have much lesstransaction throughput as compared to commercial payment networks. Forexample, Bitcoin network takes 10 minutes or longer to confirmtransactions and achieves about 3-7 transactions/sec throughput.Similarly, Ethereum blockchain network where the block-time is roughly17 seconds, and achieves about 7-15 transactions/sec throughput.Furthermore, many blockchain applications require multiple confirmationsfor newly mined blocks to secure the transactions from double-spending.For such applications, it may take several minutes for a transaction tobe confirmed. While it is possible to make the block-times faster, sothat the transactions can be processed faster, however, this wouldimpact network security. Fast block-times would make it impossible foraverage-sized miners to run as full nodes and only the powerful minerswould be able to afford the resources required to mine successfully onthe blockchain network. Thus, fast block-times can lead tocentralization risks. There exists a tradeoff between how fast thetransactions can be processed on a blockchain network and the level ofdecentralization that can be maintained.

For distributed data systems, a trade-off exists between consistency andavailability. These trade-offs are explained with the CAP Theorem, whichstates that under partitioning, a distributed data system can either beconsistent or available but not both at the same time. According to theCAP theorem the system can either favor consistency and partitiontolerance over availability, or favor availability and partitiontolerance over consistency. The CAP theorem applies to blockchainnetworks as well. Blockchain gives up on consistency to be available andpartition tolerant.

Blockchain protocols allow may limited and local adjustments to theblockchain parameters. In one approach, the parameter adjustment rulesare defined in the client code itself (which is used by the blockchainnodes to transact and mine on the network) and the parameter values areadjusted for each block. This approach works for minor adjustments toblockchain parameters which can be defined in the blockchain clientcode. For major changes to the blockchain protocol, hard forks have tobe typically used. A hard fork is a change to the underlying blockchainprotocol. Hard forks are issued after a consensus is reached among theblockchain community about the changes to be incorporated in the fork.For issuing a hard fork, all the blockchain clients (which may beimplemented in different programming languages) are updated and newreleases of these clients are issued. The blockchain peers are thennotified to upgrade their blockchain clients so that the new blockchainprotocol can come into effect. Since a blockchain network is apeer-to-peer and decentralized network, realizing hard forks can becomplex and time consuming. Miner nodes who do not upgrade theirblockchain clients after a hard fork is issued will continue to mine onthe pre-fork blockchain which is incompatible with the new blockchainprotocol. It is expected that over time the miners running the oldclients will eventually upgrade to the new clients so that they cancontinue to mine successfully on the main blockchain that follows thenew protocol. No admission is necessarily intended, nor should beconstrued, that any of the preceding information constitutes prior artagainst the present invention.

General approaches for blockchain scalability can be categorized intothe following areas:

-   -   Blockchain parameter tuning approaches: These approaches involve        tuning the blockchain parameters such as block-size and        block-time (or block-interval) to increase the transaction        throughput and reduce transaction latency using local and        limited approaches that require client upgrades and lengthy        consensus.    -   On-chain Scaling with Sharding: Sharding involves splitting the        task of consensus among concurrently operating sets of nodes, to        improve the transaction throughput and reduce the per-node        processing and storage requirements. Sharding approaches for        blockchain either shard transaction processing or shard the        state.    -   Off-chain Scaling with Channels: Channels based approaches use        off-chain peer-to-peer payment channels that allow transactions        to occur directly between participants rather than sending        transactions on the blockchain, and the blockchain is used as a        settlement mechanism.    -   Alternative blockchain designs and protocols: Other blockchain        scalability approaches are based on using alternative blockchain        designs and protocols. For example, the Bitcoin-NG proposal        addresses the scalability bottleneck by having two types of        blocks: key-blocks and microblocks. Key-blocks are used for        leader election every epoch. Microblocks contain transactions        and are generated by the epoch leader. Microblocks can be issued        at very high speed as they are signed with the leader's private        key and contain no proof of work.

Transaction processing on existing public blockchain networks requireshigh transaction fees to be paid to the network. The volume oftransactions on the public blockchain networks increase, the fees willalso increase. Due to high transaction fees, sending micro-transactions(or low value transactions) on the public blockchain networks are noteconomically feasible as the value of such transactions is lower thanthe fees paid to process the transactions.

This background information is provided to reveal information believedby the applicant to be of possible relevance to the present invention.No admission is necessarily intended, nor should be construed, that anyof the preceding information constitutes prior art against the presentinvention.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

With the above in mind, embodiments of the present invention are relatedto a method of capturing the Decentralization, Scalability and Security(DSS) constraints for blockchain networks.

In some embodiments, the method may further comprise quantifying theDecentralization, Scalability and Security levels based on variousblockchain parameters.

Furthermore, embodiments of the invention may be directed to a systemand associated methods for communicating the tuning parameters to thenodes in a blockchain network, so that the network can be tuned in anadaptive manner.

In some embodiments, the method may further comprise a unified model fortuning blockchain, without use of hard forks.

In some embodiments, the method may further comprise creatingapplication-specific blockchain flavors which desired levels ofDecentralization, Scalability and Security.

In some embodiments, the method may further comprise an adaptive tuningapproach for blockchain parameters to meet the desired levels ofDecentralization, Scalability and Security.

In some embodiments, the method may further comprise securecommunication of the tuning parameters to the nodes in the blockchainnetwork. The advantages to this embodiment of the invention forcommunicating the tuning parameters are as follows:

-   -   Allows changing the blockchain parameters dynamically, typically        without expensive hard forks.    -   Allows the network to continue to process transactions while the        changes are being applied.    -   Provides a secure way of deciding what changes are to be applied        and how the changes are to be communicated.    -   Provision for rollbacks and checkpointing to handle anomalous        conditions.

Another embodiment of the invention may be directed to a system fortuning the scalability of a blockchain network through an on-chainscaling approach to increase transaction throughput and reducetransaction latency.

Furthermore, embodiments of the invention may be directed to a systemfor tuning the scalability of a blockchain network through an off-chainscaling approach to enable micro-transactions between parties. Theprivacy of the micro-transactions on the private chain in the off-chainscaling embodiment is preserved as only a summarized view of themicro-transactions received in a particular time-period is recorded onthe main blockchain. Use of specific protocols for communication of thetuning parameters in a secure, fault-tolerant and consistent manner thatallows checkpointing and rollback is also provided.

Another embodiment of the invention may be directed to a system forcheckpointing transactions between private and public blockchainnetworks.

Another embodiment of the invention may be directed to a system forcross-chain payments.

Another embodiment of the invention may be directed to a method of smartcontract mirroring

Another embodiment of the invention may be directed to a method oftransaction replication and partitioning to speed up transactions.

Another embodiment of the invention may be directed to a method offiltering transactions into different classes and processing thetransaction on private or public blockchain networks based on the classof transaction.

Embodiments of the present invention differ from existing off-chainsolutions such as the Lightning Network and Raiden Network whichleverage bidirectional payment channels to address the issues ofscalability, latency and transaction fees for blockchain based paymentapplications and token transfers. Payment channels allow off-chaintransfer of on-chain tokens or cryptocurrencies. A payment channel iscreated between two participants by depositing a certain amount oftokens in smart contract. A payment channel is an agreement between twoparticipants where the sender sets up a deposit in a smart contract forthe receiver. Payments or transfer of tokens between the participantscan then be done by sending signed messages without going through globalconsensus on the blockchain. Eventual settlement of payments between theparticipants happens when a payment channel is closed by eitherparticipant. The payment channel smart contract validates the lastsigned message and settles the claims. Payment channels can also becombined into a network, where a path connecting any two participantscan be found. This allows payments between participants, who do not havedirect channels between each other. A limitation of payment channels isthat the participants need to lock up tokens in a payment channelcontract upfront. The value of a payment cannot exceed the deposit usedto setup a payment channel. Embodiments of the present invention adopt adifferent approach from payment channels by using a combination ofpublic and private blockchain network with regular synchronization andcheckpointing of transactions and mirroring of smart contract states.This approach does not require locking up funds upfront as in the caseof payment channels. Double spending is prevented by synchronizing theaccounts at regular intervals and combining and recording thetransactions (done on a private blockchain) to a public blockchainnetwork. Additionally, for accounts participating in off the publicchain transfers (i.e. transfers on a private blockchain), the withdrawalor transfer of tokens from the public blockchain accounts can bedisabled or locked through the use of smart contracts, to prevent thesame funds from being sent elsewhere in the time interval between twosynchronization points.

A system of one or more computers can be configured to performparticular operations or actions by virtue of having software, firmware,hardware, or a combination of them installed on the system that inoperation causes or cause the system to perform the actions. One or morecomputer programs can be configured to perform particular operations oractions by virtue of including instructions that, when executed by dataprocessing apparatus, cause the apparatus to perform the actions. Onegeneral aspect includes a method of synchronizing transactions betweenprivate and public blockchains including: receiving a first plurality oftransactions on a first private blockchain network. The method ofsynchronizing transactions also includes recording the first pluralityof transactions to a first private block on the first private blockchainnetwork. The method of synchronizing transactions also includesreceiving a second plurality of transactions on the first privateblockchain network. The method of synchronizing transactions alsoincludes recording the second plurality of transactions to a secondprivate block on the first private blockchain network. The method ofsynchronizing transactions also includes generating a first merged blockincluding the first private block and the second private block. Themethod of synchronizing transactions also includes recording the firstmerged block to a single block on a second blockchain network. Themethod of synchronizing transactions also includes recording each of thefirst private block, the second private block, and the first mergedblock to a smart contract linked to the first private blockchainnetwork, defining a first private smart contract. The method ofsynchronizing transactions also includes performing a synchronizationprocess between the first private smart contract and a second smartcontract linked to the second blockchain network, defining a secondsmart contract. The method of synchronizing transactions also includesperforming a checkpointing process between the first private smartcontract and the second smart contract including recording the state ofthe first private smart contract to the second smart contract, defininga checkpointed first private smart contract. The method of synchronizingtransactions also includes where the first private blockchain networkhas a parameter difference from the second blockchain network selectedfrom the group including of block generation time, number of networknodes, number of connected peers, minimum network bandwidth requirement,minimum mining processing power requirement, minimum mining diskinput/output requirement, minimum mining memory requirement, miningbootstrap time requirement, transaction throughput, transaction latency,stale block rate, and block propagation delay. Other embodiments of thisaspect include corresponding computer systems, apparatus, and computerprograms recorded on one or more computer storage devices, eachconfigured to perform the actions of the methods.

Implementations may include one or more of the following features. Themethod where: the second blockchain network is a public blockchainnetwork. The method may also include the second smart contract is apublic smart contract. The method where: the first plurality oftransactions includes a plurality of transactions between two users,each transaction between the two users including a transfer of tokensfrom one user to the other, each user having an account on each of thefirst private blockchain network and the second blockchain network. Themethod may also include the first merged block includes a combinedtransaction including a net token value equaling the net of transfers oftokens between the two users in the plurality of transactions betweenthe two users. The method where the first private smart contract is amulti-signature smart contract including a plurality of signatures, eachsignature being associated with a user. The method where an identity ofa user having a signature included by the first private smart contractis validated by an identity verification and certification procedure.The method where the identity verification and certification procedureincludes retrieving identity verifying information from an identityverification blockchain network. The method where the first privatesmart contract includes at least three signatures, each signature beingassociated with a separate user. The method further including: receivinga third plurality of transactions on a second private blockchainnetwork. The method may also include recording the third plurality oftransactions to a third private block on the second private blockchainnetwork. The method may also include receiving a fourth plurality oftransactions on the second private blockchain network. The method mayalso include recording the fourth plurality of transactions to a fourthprivate block on the second private blockchain network. The method mayalso include generating a second merged block including the thirdprivate block and the fourth private block. The method may also includerecording the second merged block to a single block on the publicblockchain network. The method may also include recording each of thethird private block, the fourth private block, and the second mergedblock to a smart contract linked to the second private blockchainnetwork, defining a second private smart contract. The method may alsoinclude performing a synchronization process between the second privatesmart contract and the public smart contract. The method may alsoinclude performing a checkpointing process between the second privatesmart contract and the public smart contract including recording thestate of the second private smart contract to the public smart contract,defining a checkpointed second private smart contract. The method mayalso include where the second private blockchain network has a parameterdifference from the public blockchain network selected from the groupincluding of block generation time, number of network nodes, number ofconnected peers, minimum network bandwidth requirement, minimum miningprocessing power requirement, minimum mining disk input/outputrequirement, minimum mining memory requirement, mining bootstrap timerequirement, transaction throughput, transaction latency, stale blockrate, and block propagation delay. The method further including:receiving a third plurality of transactions on a second privateblockchain network. The method may also include recording the thirdplurality of transactions to a third private block on the second privateblockchain network. The method may also include receiving a fourthplurality of transactions on the second private blockchain network. Themethod may also include recording the fourth plurality of transactionsto a fourth private block on the second private blockchain network. Themethod may also include generating a second merged block including thethird private block and the fourth private block. The method may alsoinclude recording the second merged block to a single block on thepublic blockchain network. The method may also include recording each ofthe third private block, the fourth private block, and the second mergedblock to a smart contract linked to the second private blockchainnetwork, defining a second private smart contract. The method may alsoinclude performing a synchronization process between the second privatesmart contract and a second smart contract linked to the publicblockchain network, defining a second public smart contract. The methodmay also include performing a checkpointing process between the secondprivate smart contract and the public smart contract including recordingthe state of the second private smart contract to the second publicsmart contract, defining a checkpointed second private smart contract.The method may also include where the second private blockchain networkhas a parameter difference from the public blockchain network selectedfrom the group including of block generation time, number of networknodes, number of connected peers, minimum network bandwidth requirement,minimum mining processing power requirement, minimum mining diskinput/output requirement, minimum mining memory requirement, miningbootstrap time requirement, transaction throughput, transaction latency,stale block rate, and block propagation delay. The method where thesynchronization process includes: determining an account on the firstprivate blockchain network that has a token balance decrease, defining adecreasing account. The method may also include moving a value of thetoken balance decrease from an account on the public blockchain networkcorresponding to the decreasing account to a vault account on the publicblockchain network. The method may also include determining if a totaltoken supply on the private blockchain network has increased since animmediate previous synchronization process. The method may also includeif the total token supply on the private blockchain network hasincreased, creating new tokens and sending them to the vault account.The method may also include if the total token supply on the privateblockchain network has not increased, burning an amount of tokens fromthe vault account equal to the token balance decrease. The method mayalso include determining an account on the first private blockchainnetwork that has a token balance increase, defining an increasingaccount. The method may also include moving a value of the token balanceincrease from the vault account to an account on the public blockchainnetwork corresponding to the increasing account. The method where thesecond blockchain network is a second private blockchain network and thesecond smart contract is a second private smart contract, the methodfurther including. The method may also include receiving a thirdplurality of transactions on the first private blockchain network. Themethod may also include recording the third plurality of transactions toa third private block on the first private blockchain network. Themethod may also include receiving a fourth plurality of transactions onthe first private blockchain network. The method may also includerecording the fourth plurality of transactions to a fourth private blockon the first private blockchain network. The method may also includegenerating a second merged block including the third private block andthe fourth private block. The method may also include recording thesecond merged block to the second private blockchain network. The methodmay also include generating a third merged block including each of thefirst and second merged blocks. The method may also include recordingthe third merged block to a third blockchain network. The method wherethe second private blockchain network has a parameter difference fromeach of the first private blockchain network and the third blockchainnetwork selected from the group including of block generation timenumber of network nodes, number of connected peers, minimum networkbandwidth requirement, minimum mining processing power requirement,minimum mining disk input/output requirement, minimum mining memoryrequirement, mining bootstrap time requirement, transaction throughput,transaction latency, stale block rate, and block propagation delay. Themethod where: a block generation time of the first private blockchainnetwork is within a range from 1 millisecond (ms) to 10 ms, a blockgeneration time of the second private blockchain network is within arange from 1 second to 10 seconds, and a block generation time of thethird blockchain network is within a range from 1 minute to 10 minutes.The method further including: recording the third and fourth privateblocks and the second merged block to the first private blockchain smartcontract. The method may also include performing a synchronizationprocess between the first private smart contract and the second smartcontract. The method may also include performing a checkpointing processbetween the first private smart contract and the second private smartcontract including recording the state of the first private smartcontract to the second private smart contract, redefining thecheckpointed first private smart contract. The method may also includerecording each of the first, second, and third merged blocks to a thirdsmart contract linked to the second private blockchain network, defininga third private smart contract. The method may also include performing asynchronization process between the third private smart contract and afourth smart contract linked to the third blockchain network, defining afourth smart contract. The method may also include performing acheckpointing process between the third private smart contract and thefourth smart contract including recording the state of the third privatesmart contract to the fourth smart contract, defining a checkpointedthird private smart contract. The method where the third blockchainnetwork is a public blockchain network. The method further including:applying a filter to the first plurality of transactions. The method mayalso include determining a subset of transactions of the first pluralityof transactions. The method may also include excluding the subset oftransactions from being recorded to the first merged block. The methodfurther including: identifying a failure of the first private blockchainnetwork. The method may also include recording a transaction on thefirst private blockchain network to a first private blockchain networktransaction log, defining a logged transaction. The method may alsoinclude retrieving the checkpointed first private smart contract fromthe second smart contract. The method may also include recording thecheckpointed first private smart contract to the first privateblockchain network, defining a restored first private smart contract.The method may also include recording the logged transaction to therestored first private smart contract. Implementations of the describedtechniques may include hardware, a method or process, or computersoftware on a computer-accessible medium.

Further embodiments of the invention may include a method ofsynchronizing transactions between private and public blockchainsincluding: receiving a first plurality of transactions on a firstprivate blockchain network. The method of synchronizing transactionsalso includes recording the first plurality of transactions to a firstprivate block on the first private blockchain network. The method ofsynchronizing transactions also includes receiving a second plurality oftransactions on the first private blockchain network. The method ofsynchronizing transactions also includes recording the second pluralityof transactions to a second private block on the first privateblockchain network. The method of synchronizing transactions alsoincludes generating a first merged block including the first privateblock and the second private block. The method of synchronizingtransactions also includes recording the first merged block to a singleblock on a public blockchain network. The method of synchronizingtransactions also includes recording each of the first private block,the second private block, and the first merged block to a smart contractlinked to the first private blockchain network, defining a first privatesmart contract; performing a synchronization process between the firstprivate smart contract and a smart contract linked to the publicblockchain network, defining a public smart contract, thesynchronization process including:. The method of synchronizingtransactions also includes determining an account on the first privateblockchain network that has a token balance decrease, defining adecreasing account. The method of synchronizing transactions alsoincludes moving a value of the token balance decrease from an account onthe public blockchain network corresponding to the decreasing account toa vault account on the public blockchain network. The method ofsynchronizing transactions also includes determining if a total tokensupply on the private blockchain network has increased since animmediate previous synchronization process. The method of synchronizingtransactions also includes if the total token supply on the privateblockchain network has increased, creating new tokens and sending themto the vault account. The method of synchronizing transactions alsoincludes if the total token supply on the private blockchain network hasnot increased, burning an amount of tokens from the vault account equalto the token balance decrease. The method of synchronizing transactionsalso includes determining an account on the first private blockchainnetwork that has a token balance increase, defining an increasingaccount. The method of synchronizing transactions also includes moving avalue of the token balance increase from the vault account to an accounton the public blockchain network corresponding to the increasingaccount. The method of synchronizing transactions also includesperforming a checkpointing process between the first private smartcontract and the second smart contract including recording the state ofthe first private smart contract to the public smart contract, defininga checkpointed first private smart contract. The method of synchronizingtransactions also includes where the first private blockchain networkhas a parameter difference from the public blockchain network selectedfrom the group including of block generation time, number of networknodes, number of connected peers, minimum network bandwidth requirement,minimum mining processing power requirement, minimum mining diskinput/output requirement, minimum mining memory requirement, miningbootstrap time requirement, transaction throughput, transaction latency,stale block rate, and block propagation delay. The method ofsynchronizing transactions also includes where the first private smartcontract is a multi-signature smart contract including a plurality ofsignatures, each signature being associated with a user. Otherembodiments of this aspect include corresponding computer systems,apparatus, and computer programs recorded on one or more computerstorage devices, each configured to perform the actions of the methods.

Implementations may include one or more of the following features. Themethod where: the first plurality of transactions includes a pluralityof transactions between two users, each transaction between the twousers including a transfer of tokens from one user to the other, eachuser having an account on each of the first private blockchain networkand the public blockchain network. The method may also include the firstmerged block includes a combined transaction including a net token valueequaling the net of transfers of tokens between the two users in theplurality of transactions between the two users. Implementations of thedescribed techniques may include hardware, a method or process, orcomputer software on a computer-accessible medium.

Further embodiments of the invention may include a system forsynchronizing transactions between private and public blockchainsincluding: a processor. The system also includes a data store positionedin communication with the processor. The system also includes a networkcommunication device positioned in communication with each of theprocessor, the data store, and a network. The system also includes wherethe network communication device is operable to receive a firstplurality of transactions on a first private blockchain network. Thesystem also includes where the processor is operable to record the firstplurality of transactions to a first private block on the first privateblockchain network. The system also includes where the networkcommunication device is operable to receive a second plurality oftransactions on the first private blockchain network. The system alsoincludes where the processor is operable to record the second pluralityof transactions to a second private block on the first privateblockchain network. The system also includes where the processor isoperable to generate a first merged block including the first privateblock and the second private block. The system also includes where theprocessor is operable to record the first merged block to a single blockon a second blockchain network. The system also includes where theprocessor is operable to record each of the first private block, thesecond private block, and the first merged block to a smart contractlinked to the first private blockchain network, defining a first privatesmart contract. The system also includes where the processor is operableto perform a synchronization process between the first private smartcontract and a second smart contract linked to the second blockchainnetwork, defining a second smart contract. The system also includeswhere the processor is operable to perform a checkpointing processbetween the first private smart contract and the second smart contractincluding recording the state of the first private smart contract to thesecond smart contract, defining a checkpointed first private smartcontract. The system also includes where the first private blockchainnetwork has a parameter difference from the second blockchain networkselected from the group including of block generation time, number ofnetwork nodes, number of connected peers, minimum network bandwidthrequirement, minimum mining processing power requirement, minimum miningdisk input/output requirement, minimum mining memory requirement, miningbootstrap time requirement, transaction throughput, transaction latency,stale block rate, and block propagation delay.

Further embodiments of the invention are directed to a method ofprocessing and validating transactions on a multi-chain networkcomprising receiving a first plurality of transactions, recording thefirst plurality of transactions to a first block on a first blockchainin a multi-chain network, and receiving a second plurality oftransactions. The method may further comprise recording the secondplurality of transactions to a second block on the first blockchain inthe multi-chain network, publishing the first and second plurality oftransactions to a first managed topic associated with the multi-chainnetwork on a first messaging server, defining a first publishedtransactions, and transmitting the first published transactions to afirst subscriber, defining a first transmitted transaction. Receipt ofthe first transmitted transaction by the first subscriber may initiatethe generation of a first merged block comprising the first publishedtransactions and recording of the first merged block to a secondblockchain on the multi-chain network. The first blockchain may have aparameter difference from the second blockchain selected from the groupconsisting of block generation time, transaction throughput, transactionlatency, stale block rate, block propagation delay and consensusalgorithm used.

In some embodiments, the first blockchain may be a private blockchainand the second blockchain may be a public blockchain. In someembodiments, the first plurality of transactions may comprise at leastone of transferring value from one account to another, transferringvalue between smart contracts, sending a message to a topic or a smartcontract, recording key-value pairs on the first blockchain, or storingdata in a blockchain database.

In some embodiments the first plurality of transactions may comprise aplurality of transactions between two users, each transaction betweenthe two users comprising a transfer of tokens from one user to theother, each user having an account on each of the first blockchain andthe second blockchain. The first merged block may comprise a combinedtransaction comprising a net token value equaling the net of transfersof tokens between the two users in the plurality of transactions betweenthe two users.

In some embodiments, the second blockchain is comparativelyde-centralized when compared to the first blockchain. In someembodiments, the second blockchain may have at least one of a block timethat is greater than a block time of the first blockchain or a blockgeneration time that is greater than a block generation time of thefirst blockchain.

In some embodiments, the method may further comprise receiving a thirdplurality of transactions, recording the third plurality of transactionsto a third block on the first blockchain in the multi-chain network, andreceiving a fourth plurality of transactions. The method may furthercomprise recording the fourth plurality of transactions to a third blockon the first blockchain in the multi-chain network, publishing the thirdand fourth plurality of transactions to the first managed topicassociated with the multi-chain network on the first messaging server,defining a second published transactions, and transmitting the secondpublished transactions to the first subscriber, defining a secondtransmitted transaction. Additionally, the method may further comprisepublishing the first and second published transactions to a secondmanaged topic associated with the multi-chain network on the firstmessaging server, defining a first merged published transactions andtransmitting the first merged published transactions to a secondsubscriber, defining a first merged transmitted transaction. Receipt ofthe first merged transmitted transaction by the second subscriberinitiates the generation of a third merged block comprising the firstmerged transmitted transaction and recording the third merged block to athird blockchain on the multi-chain network. The second blockchain mayhave a parameter difference from the third blockchain selected from thegroup consisting of block generation time, transaction throughput,transaction latency, stale block rate, block propagation delay andconsensus algorithm used.

In some embodiments, the method may further comprise receiving a thirdplurality of transactions, recording the third plurality of transactionsto a first block on a third blockchain in the multi-chain network, andreceiving a fourth plurality of transactions. Additionally, the methodmay further comprise recording the fourth plurality of transactions to asecond block on the third blockchain in the multi-chain network,publishing the third and fourth plurality of transactions to a secondmanaged topic associated with the multi-chain network on the firstmessaging server, defining a second published transactions, andtransmitting the second published transactions to a second subscriber,defining a second transmitted transaction. Receipt of the secondtransmitted transaction by the second subscriber may initiate thegeneration of a second merged block comprising the second publishedtransactions and recording of the second merged block to a fourthblockchain on the multi-chain network. Additionally, the thirdblockchain may be a parameter difference from the fourth blockchainselected from the group consisting of block generation time, transactionthroughput, transaction latency, stale block rate, block propagationdelay and consensus algorithm used.

Other embodiments of this aspect include corresponding computer systems,apparatus, and computer programs recorded on one or more computerstorage devices, each configured to perform the actions of the methods.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is an illustration of the blockchain account types andinteractions.

FIG. 2 is an illustration of an existing blockchain design used bypublic blockchain networks such as Ethereum.

FIG. 3 is an illustration of the Decentralization, Scalability andSecurity (DSS) framework for a blockchain network, according to anembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 4 is an illustration of exemplary decentralization, scalability andsecurity parameters, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 5 is an illustration of unified model and protocol for tuningblockchain, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 6 is an illustration of a method for creating application-specificblockchain flavors, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 7 is an illustration of a method for adaptive tuning of blockchainparameters, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 8 is an illustration of the structure of control messages asextension to the existing Ethereum Blockchain Wire Protocol, accordingto an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 9 is an illustration of blockchain design for increasingscalability (on-chain approach), according to an embodiment of theinvention.

FIG. 10 is an illustration of the structure for a micro-block in theon-chain scaling approach, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 11 is an illustration of an off-chain scaling approach, accordingto an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 12 is an illustration of super-chains and sub-chains as used in theoff-chain scaling approach, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 13 is an illustration of the checkpointing process between privateand public blockchains and the interfaces involved, according to anembodiment of the invention;

FIG. 14 is an illustration of checkpointing process between private andpublic blockchains with the use of a public-private gateway, accordingto an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 15 is an illustration of a cross-chain payments process, accordingto an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 16 is an illustration of interchain transactions and a paymentsbridge, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 17 is an illustration of fast and low cost transactions on aprivate blockchain network with periodic checkpointing on a publicblockchain network, according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 18 is an illustration of an example of transactions processed on aprivate blockchain network (off the main public chain), according to anembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 19 is an illustration of an example of combined transactionsprocessed on a public blockchain network, according to an embodiment ofthe invention.

FIG. 20 is an illustration of an example synchronizing transactionsbetween private and public blockchains, according to an embodiment ofthe invention.

FIG. 21 is an illustration of an example synchronizing transactionsbetween multiple private and public blockchains, according to anembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 22 is an illustration of a method of smart contract mirroring,according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 23 is an illustration of the use of multiple chains forreplication, partitioning and transaction speedup, according to anembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 24 is an illustration of a transactions filter for filteringtransactions into different classes, according to an embodiment of theinvention.

FIG. 25 is an illustration of the use of a private blockchaininfrastructure for offloading frequent transactions and big data,according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 26 is an illustration of an exemplary cloud and blockchain backendarchitecture for a payments application, according to an embodiment ofthe invention.

FIG. 27 is an illustration of multi-signature and multi-party smartcontracts on multiple private and permissioned blockchains which aresynchronized and checkpointed to a single public blockchain, accordingto an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 28 is an illustration of the multi-signature and multi-party smartcontracts in a Letter of Credit application, according to an embodimentof the invention/

FIG. 29 is an illustration of “soft” smart contracts, according to anembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 30 is a reference implementation of a token smart contractsynchronizing service that syncs token smart contracts between a privateblockchain and a public blockchain, according to an embodiment of theinvention.

FIG. 31 is an illustration of a distributed publish-subscribe messagingframework according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 32 is an illustration of the consumer/subscriber actions supportedin the publish-subscribe messaging framework according to an embodimentof the invention.

FIG. 33 is an illustration of a BlockGrid architecture according to anembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 34 is an illustration of relationships between blocks on differentblockchains within the BlockGrid architecture according to an embodimentof the invention.

FIG. 35 is an illustration of transaction and state storage in theBlockGrid network according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 36 is an illustration of different transaction types which arerouted through the bulletin board publish-subscribe framework accordingto an embodiment of the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention will now be described more fully hereinafter withreference to the accompanying drawings, in which preferred embodimentsof the invention are shown. This invention may, however, be embodied inmany different forms and should not be construed as limited to theembodiments set forth herein. Rather, these embodiments are provided sothat this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fullyconvey the scope of the invention to those skilled in the art. Those ofordinary skill in the art realize that the following descriptions of theembodiments of the present invention are illustrative and are notintended to be limiting in any way. Other embodiments of the presentinvention will readily suggest themselves to such skilled persons havingthe benefit of this disclosure. Like numbers refer to like elementsthroughout.

Although the following detailed description contains many specifics forthe purposes of illustration, anyone of ordinary skill in the art willappreciate that many variations and alterations to the following detailsare within the scope of the invention. Accordingly, the followingembodiments of the invention are set forth without any loss ofgenerality to, and without imposing limitations upon, the claimedinvention.

In this detailed description of the present invention, a person skilledin the art should note that directional terms, such as “above,” “below,”“upper,” “lower,” and other like terms are used for the convenience ofthe reader in reference to the drawings. Also, a person skilled in theart should notice this description may contain other terminology toconvey position, orientation, and direction without departing from theprinciples of the present invention.

Furthermore, in this detailed description, a person skilled in the artshould note that quantitative qualifying terms such as “generally,”“substantially,” “mostly,” and other terms are used, in general, to meanthat the referred to object, characteristic, or quality constitutes amajority of the subject of the reference. The meaning of any of theseterms is dependent upon the context within which it is used, and themeaning may be expressly modified.

Referring now to FIG. 1, for example, and without limitation, blockchainaccount types and interactions between them, are described in moredetail. Blockchain is a distributed and public ledger which maintainsrecords of all the transactions. A blockchain network 100 is a trulypeer-to-peer network and it does not require a trusted central authorityor intermediaries to authenticate or to settle the transactions or tocontrol the network infrastructure. Users can interact and transact withthe blockchain networks through Externally Owned Account (EOAs) 110,which are owned and controlled by the users. Each EOA 110 has an accountaddress 102, account public-private keys 104 and a balance 106 (incertain units of a Cryptocurrency associated with the Blockchainnetwork) associated with it. EOAs do not have any associated code. Alltransactions 120 on a blockchain network are initiated by EOAs. Theseaccounts can send transactions to other EOAs or contract accounts.Another type of accounts support by second generation programmableBlockchain platforms are the Contract Accounts 108. A Contract Account108 is created and owned by an EOA 110, is located at a contract address112, and is controlled by the associated contract code 114 which isstored with the contract account 108. Additionally, the contract account108 may comprise a balance 116, which may be identical to the balance106 of the EOA 110. The contract code 114 execution is triggered bytransactions 118 sent by EOAs or messages sent by other contracts.

Referring now to FIG. 2, for example, and without limitation, astructure of blockchain is described in more detail. A blockchaincomprises a sequence of blocks 150, 152, 154 generated after blockintervals 192, 194, where each block is identified by its cryptographichash (the nonce field) 178 and references the hash of its parent block.The cryptographic hash of a block is used to verify that a sufficientamount of computation has been carried out on this block and the blockcontains a valid proof-of-work (PoW). Each block maintains records ofall the transactions on the network received since the creation of itsprevious block. Instead of storing the information on all thetransactions within the block itself, a special data structure called aMerkle tree is used to store the transactions and only the hash of theroot of the Merkle tree is stored in the block. A block header 160 hasthe following fields:

Block Number (number) 164: This is a scalar value equal to the number ofancestors of the block. For genesis block, the block number is zero.

Timestamp (timestamp) 180: This is the UNIX timestamp value at thecreation of the block.

Nonce (nonce) 178: The nonce field is a 64-bit hash, which along withmixhash field is used to verify that a sufficient amount of computationhas been carried out on this block, and the block contains a validproof-of-work (PoW).

Mix Hash (mixhash) 166: The mixhash field is a 256-bit hash, which alongwith nonce field is used to verify that the block contains a validproof-of-work.

Parent Hash (prevhash) 162: Each block in a blockchain is linked to itsparent through the parentHash, which is the hash of the parent blockheader.

Coinbase Address (coinbase) 182: This is a 20-byte address of theaccount to which all the rewards for mining of the block and theexecution of contracts are transferred.

Block Difficulty (difficulty) 168: This field specifies a difficultyvalue for mining. A block is valid only if it contains a validproof-of-work (PoW) of a given difficulty.

Gas Limit (gas_limit) 184: The gas limit value is the limit of gasexpenditure for the block.

Gas Used (gas_used) 186: This is the total gas used for all thetransactions in the block.

Extra Data (extra_data) 170: Optional 32-byte extra data can be providedin the block.

Uncles Hash (uncles_hash) 188: This is the 32 byte hash of the RLPencoded list of uncle headers.

State Root (state_root) 174: This is the 32 byte hash of the root of theblock's state trie after the transactions are executed.

Transactions List Root (tx_list_root) 176: This is the 32 byte hash ofthe root of the block's transaction trie which is populated with thetransactions in the block.

Receipts Root (receipts_root) 190: This is the 32 byte hash of the rootof the block's receipts trie which is populated with the receipts of thetransaction in the transactions list of the block.

Bloom Filter (bloom) 172: Bloom filter composed from the set of logscreated through execution of the transactions in the block.

Each of the block headers 156, 158 may comprise the above-recitedfields.

Referring to FIG. 3, a Decentralization, Scalability and Security (DSS)framework or theorem which captures the constraints betweendecentralization, scalability and security for a blockchain network, isdescribed in more detail. An embodiment of the invention provides methodfor capturing the tradeoffs between blockchain decentralization,scalability and security. Decentralization, scalability and security fora blockchain network are defined as follows:

-   -   Decentralization: Decentralization 200 of a blockchain network        is defined by the ability of the network to process and settle        the transactions without the need for a central authority. A        blockchain network is a truly peer-to-peer network and it does        not require a trusted central authority or intermediaries to        authenticate or to settle the transactions or to control the        network infrastructure. The level of decentralization of a        blockchain network depends on the resource requirements for the        peers to participate in a network. Higher the resource        requirements for peers, lowers the level of decentralization as        only peers with powerful hardware will be able participate and        mine on the network.    -   Scalability: Scalability 202 of a blockchain network is defined        by the ability of the network to process a growing number of        transactions. Scalability for a blockchain network is defined in        terms of metrics such as transaction throughput and transaction        latency. As a reference, Bitcoin network takes 10 min or longer        to confirm transactions and achieves a throughput of 3-7        transactions/sec.    -   Security: Security 204 for a blockchain network is defined as        the ability of the network to be secure against attackers and        prevent double spending. Blockchain has the ability to establish        trust in a peer-to-peer network through a distributed consensus        mechanism rather than relying on a powerful central authority.

The DSS theorem states that it is impossible to simultaneously providehigh levels of Decentralization, Scalability and Security (DSS) forblockchain networks.

The levels of Decentralization (L_(D)), Scalability (L_(Sc)) andSecurity (L_(Se)) for blockchain networks are tunable subject to thefollowing constraints:L _(Sc)∝(1/L _(D))^(a)∝(1/L _(Se))^(b)

where exponents a and b are dependent on the blockchain platform. TheDecentralization, Scalability and Security (DSS) constraints accordingto an embodiment of the present invention are described as follows:

-   -   Scalability and Security: The level of scalability in a        blockchain network is inversely proportional to the level of        security. If a blockchain network is scaled-up to increase        transaction throughput or decrease transaction latency, the        level of security of the network decreases 214. For example, a        scaling-up measure such as reducing block interval period (to        decrease transaction latency) reduces the level of security due        to larger number of stale blocks being produced which do not        contribute to the network security. Inversely, as scalability        decreases, security increases 212.    -   Scalability and Decentralization: The level of scalability in a        blockchain network is inversely proportional to the level of        decentralization. If a blockchain network is scaled-up to        increase transaction throughput or decrease transaction latency,        the level of decentralization of the network decreases 208. For        example, a scaling-up measure such as increasing block size (to        increase transaction throughput) reduces the level of        decentralization as the computational and storage load on each        node will increase and the nodes running on commodity hardware        will not be able to catch-up and mine on the network. Inversely,        as scalability decreases, decentralization increases 210.    -   Decentralization and Security: The level of decentralization in        a blockchain network is directly proportional to the level of        security or inversely proportional to level of insecurity 206.        If the level of decentralization of blockchain network is        decreased, the security of the network decreases or insecurity        increases 216. For example, a lower-level of decentralization        means that the network is controlled by groups of miners or        mining pools. Mining pools can collude to compromise the        security of the network and attempt a ‘51% attack’. In a 51%        attack, the pool can rewrite the blockchain history and do        double-spending to their advantage. Inversely, as        decentralization increases, insecurity decreases 218.

Referring now to FIG. 4, for example, and without limitation, thedecentralization, scalability and security parameters, are described inmore detail. The level of Decentralization (L_(D)) is quantified interms of the following blockchain parameters 250:

N_(T): Total number of nodes in the network 256;

N_(P): Number of peers connected to each node 258;

B_(p): Minimum bandwidth required by a node to mine on the network 260;

C_(p): Minimum processing power required by a node to mine on thenetwork 262;

D_(p): Minimum disk I/O required by a node to mine on the network 264;

M_(p): Minimum memory required by a node to mine on the network 268; and

T_(bs): Bootstrap time for a node to start mining 270.

The level of Decentralization (L_(D)) is specified as:L _(D) =fn(N _(T) , N _(P) , B _(p) , C _(p) , D _(p) , M _(p) , T_(bs))where: 0<=L _(D)<=10

L_(D)=0: No decentralization

L_(D)=10: Highly decentralized

The level of Scalability (L_(Sc)) is quantified in terms of thefollowing blockchain parameters 252:

P_(tx): Transaction throughput 272; and

T_(tx): Transaction latency 274.

The level of Scalability (L_(Sc)) is specified as:L _(Sc) =fn(P _(tx) , T _(tx))

where:0<=L _(Sc)<=10

L_(Sc)=0: No scalability

L_(Sc)=10: Highly scalable

The level of Security (L_(Se)) is quantified in terms of the followingblockchain parameters 254:

S_(r): Stale block rate 276; and

T_(bp): Block propagation delay 278.

The level of Security (L_(Se)) is specified as:L _(Se) =fn(S _(r) , T _(bp))

where:0<=L _(Se)<=10

L_(Se)=0: No security

L_(Se)=10: Highly secure

Referring now to FIG. 5, a unified model and protocol for tuningblockchain, is described in more detail. The unified model and protocolfor tuning blockchain provides a standardized way of comparing variousblockchain scalability approaches. With this model we can quantify thebenefits of various scaling approaches in the form of DSS levels (whereeach level is on the scale of 0 to 10). The DSS model 300 can be createdby learning the dependencies between DSS levels based on experimentalmeasurement of the various blockchain parameters for a blockchainnetwork. Each blockchain network has its own DSS model. The DSS model isdependent on the blockchain technology or platform (such as Bitcoin,Ethereum) and also its network deployment (e.g. public unpermissioned orprivate permissioned). Once a DSS model is built for a blockchainnetwork, the blockchain can be tuned according to various scalingapproaches, and the benefits of these approaches can be compared in theform of DSS levels. The tuning process involves providing the blockchaintuning parameters as input 302 to the DSS model 300 for a blockchainnetwork. The output 304 of the DSS model are the levels ofdecentralization (L_(D)) 306, scalability (L_(Sc)) 308 and security(L_(se)) 310, where the levels are related according to equation 312,with L_(Sc) 308 being inversely proportional to L_(D) 306 which is inturn inversely proportional to L_(se) 310. The tuning is also especiallyuseful when nodes in the blockchain network fail or the network may bepartitioned so that reallocation of work may be suitably done.

The DSS theorem described above is compatible with and complimentary toa consistency, availability and partition tolerance (CAP) theoremapplied to a blockchain network. According to CAP for blockchain, ablockchain network is always be available and eventually-consistent.Whereas, according to DSS for a blockchain, a blockchain network cannotsimultaneously have high levels of Decentralization, Scalability andSecurity. The levels of Decentralization, Scalability and Security forblockchain networks are tunable subject to the DSS constraints.Blockchain platforms may use different consensus mechanisms, blockchaindesigns or parameters to tune the consistency, availability andpartition-tolerance of the blockchain network. With a DSS model for ablockchain network, it is possible to quantify the effects of variousconsensus mechanisms, blockchain designs or parameters on thedecentralization, scalability and security of the blockchain network.For example, with a DSS model, we can compare the effects of switchingthe consensus mechanism on a blockchain network from Proof-of-Work toProof-of-Stake. Similarly, we can compare the effects of changing theblock-size and block-interval parameters for a blockchain network.

Referring now to FIG. 6, a method aspect of the present invention forcreating application-specific blockchain flavors, is described in moredetail. The DSS unified model described above, allows creatingapplication-specific blockchain flavors, which use the same blockchaintechnology or platform but differ only in the blockchain parameters. Forexample, the Ethereum blockchain platform can be used to create multipleblockchain networks or deployments, where each network may have adifferent level of decentralization, scalability and security based onthe business or application requirements. For a blockchain network whichis to be used for applications involving sensitive data (such ashealthcare), it may be desirable to have higher levels of security bycompromising on the scalability or decentralization, having inputs 352such as relatively smaller block sizes S_(B) of, for instance, 0.1megabytes, and a block interval of 60 seconds which, when applied to theDSS model 350, yielding output 354. Whereas, for a blockchain networkwhich is to be used for Internet of Things (loT) applications, it may bedesirable to have higher levels of scalability by compromising on thesecurity or decentralization, having inputs 358 of a block size of 0.5megabytes and a block interval of 60 seconds that, when DSS model 356 isapplied, yields output 360. One of ordinary skill in the art may performthis analysis.

Referring now to FIG. 7, a method aspect of the present invention foradaptive tuning of blockchain parameters, without significant clientrelease updates, is described in more detail. The adaptive tuning methodstarts at step 380 with fixing the DSS levels for a blockchain based onapplication requirements. For example if a blockchain is to be used forapplications requiring high transaction throughput, the scalabilitylevels may be fixed to higher levels (such as 8-10) while the securityand decentralization levels may be fixed to relatively lower levels(such as 4-6). Next, at step 382 use DSS model for the blockchain isused to determine the values of blockchain parameters required to meetthe required DSS levels. Next, the blockchain can be setup with thesevalues of blockchain parameters. Once the blockchain network is setup,the performance of the blockchain and its various metrics are monitoredcontinuously, at step 384, through specialized control packets/messagesthat request Quality of Performance (QoP) values that are measuredthroughout the network, and based on this a decision can be made toinitiate, stop, or rollback adaptive tuning processes, so that thesystem is efficient and consistent. At step 386 the target DSS levelsmay be identified from the DSS model for the blockchain network. At step388, a check is performed if the DSS levels deviate from the desiredlevels. If the DSS levels deviate from the desired levels, theblockchain parameters are tuned, at step 390, to meet the desired DSSlevels.

Referring now to FIG. 8, the structure of control messages as extensionto the existing Ethereum Blockchain Wire Protocol, is described in moredetail. The GetQoP message 400 may comprise a Message ID 408 and is usedto request the QoP metrics for the specified metric-IDs 410, 412, 414.The response to a GetQoP message is a QoP message 402 which contains aMessage ID 416, metric-IDs requested and their values 418, 420, 422. TheDSS model is used at regular intervals of time to compute the currentDSS levels. If the current DSS levels deviate from the desired levels,the blockchain parameters can be tuned to meet the desired DSS levels.If there exist timeouts or some other problems (message losses ornetwork fragmentation/node failures) with implementation of the tuningupdate, the system can rollback to previous parameters sets that werecheck-pointed or stored (with in an incremental manner or in an absolutemanner; a choice that is related to storage and security requirements).

An embodiment of the invention provides a system and associated methodsfor communicating the tuning parameters to the nodes in a blockchainnetwork, so that the network can be tuned in an adaptive manner. Wepropose a set of nodes called the ‘Supervisor’ nodes in a blockchainnetwork who supervise the tuning updates to the blockchain. Thesupervisor nodes hold a stake in the blockchain network. The stake canbe in the form of a bond. The supervisor nodes monitor the blockchainnetwork performance and decide how to adjust the blockchain parameters,based on the adaptive tuning approach described above. The parameterupdate announcements are issued after the supervisor nodes come to aconsensus on the updates to be made to the parameters. Once thesupervisor nodes come to a consensus on an update, one of the supervisornodes is randomly chosen to create an announcement message. Theannouncement message is signed by the supervisor node's private key. Thesupervisor can also rollback or cancel the update to the lastcheck-pointed state. These changes can be made as extensions to existingprotocols, such as but not limited to Ethereum Wire Protocol, RLPx,Whisper, or SNMP and its variants. The NewTuningAnnoucement message 404is used to announce an update to the tuning parameters. This messagecontains a Message ID 416, an announcement number 426, the address ofthe supervisor node issuing the announcement 428, and the tuningparameter IDs and the respective values 430, 432. To rollback anannouncement or update to tuning parameters, a supervisor can issue aRollbackTuningAnnouncement 406 which contains a Message ID 434, thenumber of the announcement message 436, which is rolled back, and theissuing supervisor node address 438. We propose an enhancement to theexisting blockchain wire protocols to allow the tuning announcementmessages to be exchanged in a peer-to-peer blockchain network. Theannouncement messages are transmitted over the blockchain wire protocol(like other messages such as new block announcements). The underlyingnetwork and transport protocol allows the integrity of the announcementmessages to be verified. Integrity verification is performed byrecovering the public key from the signature and matching it with theexpected value, for instance. The nodes in a blockchain network maycontinue to process the transactions while the announcement messages arepropagated through the network. While these messages are beingpropagated, some miner nodes may use old tuning parameters for creatingnew blocks, whereas other miner nodes who received the announcementmessages will use the latest announced blockchain parameters. This maylead to short forks being created on each new announcement. These forksare resolved when the next block is mined and the blocks using olderparameters are ignored. Alternatively, the transactions may be haltedfor a period of synchronization before resuming. Suitable checkpointingmethods may be used to rollback for any inconsistent application ofparameters, or other faults and timeouts.

Referring now to FIG. 9, a method aspect of the present invention foron-chain scaling is described in more detail. A blockchain designcomprising two types of blocks—normal blocks and microblocks, ispresented. Normal blocks such as 500, 502 are created by the miners onthe blockchain network and require proof-of-work mining separated by ablock interval 506. A block is cryptographically secured by a nonce thatproves that a certain amount of work was done to find the nonce input tothe PoW algorithm. The normal blocks represents an eventually consistentstate of the network, or points of consensus in the network.Micro-blocks, such as 504, are generated in the block-interval betweentwo normal-blocks. Micro-blocks are created by a bonded-validator chosenby the network. There is no mining involved in creation of micro-blocks.The validator chosen after each normal block is created, generatesmicro-blocks by validating the transactions received after the creationof the last normal block and updates the state. Since no proof-of-workcomputation is involved, micro-blocks can be created at a very fastrate. Micro-blocks increase transaction throughput and reducetransaction latency in a blockchain network. The micro-block size andmicro-block interval can be tuned. The structure of normal blocks issimilar to the blocks in existing second generation blockchain networkssuch as Ethereum.

Referring now to FIG. 10, the structure of an exemplary microblock 550and the fields 552 in a microblock are described in more detail asfollows:

Micro-Block Number (number) 564: This is the number of the micro-block.

Timestamp (timestamp) 556: This is the UNIX timestamp value at thecreation of the block.

Parent Hash (prevhash) 554: Hash of the parent block header. ValidatorAddress (address): This is the address of the account the validator whocreated the micro-block.

Gas Limit (gas_limit) 568: The gas limit value is the limit of gasexpenditure for the block.

Gas Used (gas_used) 570: This is the total gas used for all thetransactions in the block.

Extra Data (extra_data) 558: Optional 32-byte extra data can be providedin the block.

State Root (state_root) 562: This is the 32 byte hash of the root of theblock's state tree after the transactions are executed.

Transactions List Root (tx_list_root) 572: This is the 32-byte hash ofthe root of the block's transaction tree which is populated with thetransactions in the block.

Receipts Root (receipts_root) 574: This is the 32-byte hash of the rootof the block's receipts tree which is populated with the receipts of thetransaction in the transactions list of the block.

Bloom Filter (bloom) 560: Bloom filter composed from the set of logscreated through execution of the transactions in the block.

Microblocks are generated by a ‘bonded-validator’ chosen by the network.Each validator owns a ‘stake’ in the network in the form of a bond orsecurity-deposit. The validators who post a bond, or in other words,make the security deposit, are called ‘bonded validators’. Given a pointof consensus (i.e. a block at a certain height), a validator is randomlyselected and assigned the right to create micro-blocks till the nextblock is mined. The higher the security deposit made by a validator,higher is its probability of being chosen to create the micro-blocks.Validators earn 10 rewards to validating transactions in micro-blocks.Any malicious validator who tries to cheat the network and vote for amicroblock with invalid transactions loses its deposit and the right togenerate new microblocks.

Referring now to FIG. 11, an off-chain scaling approach, is described inmore detail. An embodiment of the invention provides a system, protocol,and associated methods for off-chain scaling of a blockchain network600. The off-chain scaling method involves one or more permissionedprivate chains or sub-chains 602 which are linked to the main blockchainthrough one or more smart contracts 604. The participants in theblockchain network who need to transact frequently can registerthemselves on such a private and transact directly with each otherrather than sending transactions through the main blockchain. Theconsensus mechanism in a permissioned private chain is controlled by apre-selected set of nodes. Due to the permissioned model of consensus ina private chain, the consensus mechanism is much faster than the mainblockchain. As a result, a private chain can enable micro-transactionsbetween the participants which can be processed much faster. The stateof a private chain is regularly checkpointed to the main blockchainthrough the smart contracts. Thus the main blockchain serves as a‘summarized’ or ‘abstract’ version of all the private chains linked toit. For example, a single transaction can be created on the main chainwhich captures the multiple micro-transactions on the private chain 608,610, 612.

Referring now to FIG. 12, an illustration of super-chains and sub-chainsas used in the off-chain scaling approach, is described in more detail.The off-chain scaling method involves one super-chain 650 and one ormore levels of sub-chains 652, 654, 656. The super-chain acts assummarized version of the level-1 sub-chain. Similarly, level-(N-1)sub-chain acts as a summarized version of the level-N sub-chain. Asingle block in the super-chain can include summarized transactions frommultiple blocks in the sub-chain. For example, for a retail blockchainapplication, a sub-chain can capture the sale of individual items (asmicro-transactions) and the super-chain can capture a summary of all thetransactions every hour, such that a single transaction is created everyhour showing one summary sale of all the items sold in that hour. TheDSS unified model can be used to tune to the super-chain and sub-chainsto meet the application requirements.

Referring now to FIG. 13, the checkpointing process between private andpublic blockchains and the interfaces involved, are described in moredetail. Transactions are typically conducted on private permissionedblockchain networks 706, 708 that may share a global database 700through a private blockchain database manager/network 718. Selected (andexpensive/infrequent) transactions are checkpointed 716 on the publicblockchain 702. The use of smart contracts allows suitableidentification and processing of transactions in private or publicblockchains and checkpointing at select times through use of policiesthat may be dynamically enforced. This approach improves the efficiency,speed and reduces the cost of transactions. The private permissionedblockchain networks 706, 708 may be used for multiple e-commerceapplications, including trading, payments, HR, taxes, auctions, etc.Private permissioned blockchain networks 706, 708 carry out the majorityof the smart contracts and other transactions on the B interfaces 714,while periodically checkpointing to the Public Blockchain 702 tosynchronize some bulk/block transactions. This reduces the costs andtariff incurred if directly using the A Interface 712 for alltransactions.

Referring now to FIG. 14, is an illustration of checkpointing processbetween private and public blockchains with the use of a public-privategateway, are described in more detail. In this model, a public-privategateway that interfaces with the e-commerce infrastructure 710 throughthe C Interface 722 and forwards the transactions to the publicblockchain 702 over the A Interface 704.

Referring now to FIG. 15, the cross-chain payments process, is describedin more detail. In the scenarios illustrated in the figure, a User-1 770having an account on a public blockchain network-1 754 sends a paymentin a cryptocurrency or token on blockchain network-1 to User-2 768 whohas an account on a public blockchain network-2 758. The publicblockchain networks 754, 758, 752, each having an associated database764, 760, 762, interface with a private blockchain network 750 and itsdatabase 756 through blockchain bridges. Bridges allow inter-chainblockchain transactions. A blockchain bridge 766 receives transactionsfrom a public blockchain network and forwards the transactions to theconnected private blockchain network. Similarly, the transactionsreceived from a private blockchain network are forwarded to theconnected private blockchain network.

Referring now to FIG. 16, inter-chain transactions and payments bridge,are described in more detail. A bridge 804 connects two blockchainnetworks 800, 802 and allows transactions to be forwarded from oneblockchain network to another. A bridge 804 may be implemented through acombination of blockchain accounts 812, 810, and smart contracts 806,808, on the connected blockchain networks 800, 802, with on-chain oroff-chain payment settlements 814 between the blockchain accounts.

Referring now to FIG. 17, an illustration of fast and low costtransactions on a private blockchain network with periodic checkpointingon a public blockchain network, is described in more detail. User-1 856and User-2 860 have accounts on a private and permissioned blockchainnetwork 850 and a public blockchain network 852. The private andpermissioned blockchain network 850 is used for frequent transactionsbetween the users 856,860. The transactions are processed fast and withlow fees on the private and permissioned blockchain network 850. Thetransactions between the users 856, 860 are checkpointed 858 on thepublic blockchain network 852 at regular intervals. During thecheckpointing process, multiple transactions on the private andpermissioned blockchain network 850 are combined into a singletransaction and sent to the public blockchain network 852. A thirdblockchain network 854 may be may be used for user identity and accessmanagement.

Referring now to FIG. 18, an example of transactions processed on aprivate blockchain network (off the main public chain), is described inmore detail. User-A 902, User-B 904, User-C 906, User-D 908 all havestarting balances of 100 (in a certain cryptocurrency or a token whichcan be transacted on a private blockchain network). The table 900 showsexamples of transactions that transfer value between the users. Afterthe transactions in table 900 are processed, the ending balance of theUser-A is 108, User-B is 107, User-C is 98 and User-D is 87.

Referring now to FIG. 19, and continuing to refer to FIG. 18, an exampleof combined transactions processed on a public blockchain network, isdescribed in more detail. The transactions on the private blockchainnetwork as shown in table 900, between the same pair of users are mergedyielding a combined transactions 922. The merged transactions as shownin table 920 are sent to the public blockchain network. The values ofthe starting and ending balances of User-A 902, User-B 904, User-C 906,User-D 908 for the transactions processed on the private blockchainnetwork are the same as the merged transactions processed on the publicblockchain network. To prevent double spending from accountsparticipating in off the public chain transfers (i.e. transfers on theprivate chain), the accounts on the public blockchain can be locked inthe time interval between two synchronization points of the private andpublic chains. This is to prevent the transfer of tokens from accountson the public chain while there are unsynchronized transactions on theprivate chain. Smart contracts on the public blockchain can be used forlocking the accounts and preventing transfer or withdrawal of tokenswhile there are unsynchronized transactions on the private chain.

Referring now to FIG. 20, an example synchronizing transactions betweenprivate and public blockchains, is described in more detail. Privateblockchain network 950 has fast block generation time as a result thetransactions can be processed very fast. The consensus mechanism on theprivate blockchain network 950 can be chosen such that the transactioncan be processed with negligible or near zero fees. Public blockchainnetwork 952 may be relatively de-centralized with respect to the privateblockchain network 950 and may have slower block generation time and, asa result, transactions are processed slower on the public blockchain.Public blockchain networks typically have high transaction fees. Bymerging multiple transaction on the private blockchain into a singletransaction on the public blockchain, the effective fees paid pertransaction can be lowered.

Referring now to FIG. 21, an example synchronizing transactions betweenmultiple private and public blockchains, is described in more detail.The private blockchain network 954 has fast block generation time (ofthe order of few milliseconds) and the transactions are processed veryfast. The transactions on the private blockchain network 954 (betweenthe same pair of users and received in a given time interval) are mergedand sent to the private blockchain network 956 which has slower blockgeneration time (of the order of few seconds) than private blockchainnetwork 954. The transactions on the private blockchain network 956(between the same pair of users and received in a given time interval)are merged and sent to the public blockchain network 958 which has slowblock generation time (of the order of few minutes) than privateblockchain network 954.

Referring now to FIG. 22, a method of smart contract mirroring, isdescribed in more detail. The same smart contract (such as an ERC20token contract) can be deployed on the private and public blockchainnetworks 1000, 1002. The smart contract 1006 on the private blockchainnetwork 1000 is mirrored 1010 as the smart contract 1008 on the publicblockchain network 1002 where the transactions on the private blockchainand periodically synchronized and checkpointed on the public blockchainnetwork. The private blockchain network 1000 can process thetransactions very fast and with near zero transaction fees. Thetransactions are periodically combined and sent in the public blockchainnetwork 1002 thus synchronizing the smart contracts on the private andpublic chains. The sync and checkpointing process 1004 can be triggeredat fixed time intervals (such as every few hours) or after fixed numberof blocks on the private chain (e.g. after every 100 blocks on theprivate chain). Private blockchain network 1000 may adopt a differentconsensus algorithm (such as Proof of Authority or Delegated Proof ofStake) from the public blockchain network 1002.

Referring now to FIG. 23, the use of multiple chains for replication,partitioning and transaction speedup, is described in more detail.Private and permissioned blockchain networks 1050, 1054, 1056 have thesame smart contract deployed at addresses 1068, 1070, 1064 and mirroredto the smart contract 1066 deployed on the public blockchain network1052. Multiple private and permissioned blockchain networks are used forthe purposes of replication, partitioning and transaction speedup. Forexample, in a payment application, all transactions between a subset-1of users can be processed on private and permissioned blockchain network1050, whereas transactions between another subset-2 of users can beprocessed on the private and permissioned blockchain network 1054, thuspartitioning the transaction processing for the payment applicationacross two blockchain. Another use of having multiple private andpermissioned blockchain networks 1050, 1054, 1056 to processtransactions for an application is that while one network is beingsynchronized and checkpointed 1058, 1060, 1062 with the publicblockchain network 1052, the transactions can be sent to the otherprivate blockchain network to prevent double spending.

Referring now to FIG. 24, a transactions filter for filteringtransactions into different classes, is described in more detail.Transactions sent by users 1082 between private blockchain networks 1000and public blockchain networks 1002 that are synced and checkpointed1004 are filtered by a transactions filter 1080 based on the transactionvalue, sender and receiver information, source of transaction and othermeta-data associated with the transaction. The transaction filteringprocess can segregate the transactions into different classes such asfollows:

-   -   Class 1: Small value transactions are completed on private        blockchain with no syncing.    -   Class 2: Large value transactions are synced immediately.    -   Class 3: Other transactions will be synced in batch mode.    -   Class 4: Transactions which seem suspicious are be sent for        additional processing.

Referring now to FIG. 25, the use of a private blockchain infrastructureto offload frequent transactions and big data, is described in moredetail. Since blockchain and smart contracts are not designed to storelarge amounts of data and big files, such information can be stored on adecentralized storage platform (such as IPFS or Swarm). In thisapproach, while the data is stored off the blockchain within a storageplatform, the hash of the data (which is used to uniquely identify thedata) is stored on the blockchain as state variables within a smartcontract. The benefit of this approach is that while standardized datafields can be stored as state variables in a smart contract, theabstract data types and large files can be stored off the blockchain andpointers to the data (content-hash) stored with the smart contracts1106, 1112. For scaling and speeding up applications that involvefrequent transactions between users or devices (such as loTapplications) or applications that involve large amounts of data (suchas healthcare applications), a private blockchain infrastructurecomprising a private blockchain network 1104, a private blockchaindatabase 1100 and a private decentralized storage network 1102 is used.While the private blockchain infrastructure is used for offloadingfrequent transactions and big data, a public blockchain infrastructurecomprising a public blockchain network 1110, a public blockchaindatabase 1114 and public private decentralized storage network 1116 isused for combined or important or summarized transactions and data. Datacan be synchronized and checkpointed 1108 between the private and publicblockchain networks 1104, 1110.

Referring now to FIG. 26, an exemplary cloud and blockchain backendarchitecture for a payments application, is described in more detail.Users 1200 can access the payment application through a mobile or webapplication 1202 which communicates with the application backend (cloudand blockchain) through APIs. The access to the backend APIs iscontrolled through the API gateway 1204. A number of compute instances1208, 1210, 1212, under one load balancer 1206 may run the applicationservers. The application data is stored in a replicated master-slavedatabase comprising a master database instance 1214 and a slave databaseinstance 1216. The application servers process the API requests (such asfor transfer of tokens on the blockchain) and post transactions to aprivate blockchain network 1218. To enable the application servers tocommunicate with the private blockchain network 1218, the computeinstances on which such application servers run also have blockchainclient applications installed. The blockchain transactions and the stateof smart contracts are synchronized and checkpointed 1220 on the publicblockchain network 1222 at regular time intervals. The advantages ofusing an architecture as illustrated in FIG. 25 are as follows:

Web and mobile applications do not have to be aware of the blockchainplatform being used. The web and mobile applications (which arethemselves deployed on a server or local machine or device) need not runblockchain clients and synchronize the complete blockchain state toprocess the blockchain transactions.

Transactions can be processed much faster on the private blockchain. Thecombined transactions and the state of the smart contracts on theprivate blockchain can be synchronized and checkpointed with the publicblockchain at regular intervals in an asynchronous manner without theusers having to wait for the transactions to be processed.

The API gateway may use a cache to serve data which is requestedfrequently (such as balances of blockchain accounts or smart contractstate variables).

The compute instances that run the application servers and blockchainclients may be placed under an auto-scaling group to enable the backendsystem to scale-up or down automatically based on demand.

The database system maintains records of user and transactions data andserves requests from the application servers. This allows users toefficiently query for data such as history of all transactions, userprofile data and other application specific data that need not be storedon the blockchain.

Referring now to FIG. 27 and additionally referring to FIG. 28, the useof multi-signature and multi-party smart contracts 1310, 1312 onmultiple private and permissioned blockchains which are synchronized andcheckpointed 1324, 1326 to a single public blockchain and associatedsmart contracts 1318, 1320, are described in more detail. Applicationsinvolving multiple parties to smart contracts 1300, 1302, 1304, 1306,1308, (for example, in the case of a trade process that involves Letterof Credit (LC) or Standby Letters of Credit (SBLC) contracts between theparties to the trade) can leverage private and permissioned blockchainnetworks 1314, 1316 for improving scalability, speeding up transactions,and reducing transaction processing fees. Each party is represented onthe blockchain through a registry smart contract. For example, in atrade process that involves the use of Letter of Credit, the partiesinclude a buyer, seller, issuing bank, advising bank and shippingcompany. These parties are represented on the blockchain throughregistry contracts such as Buyer Registry Contract 1402, Seller RegistryContract 1404, Issuing Bank Registry Contract 1410, Advising BankRegistry Contract 1412, Carrier Registry Contract 1400, Sales Contract1406, Letter of Credit Contract 1408.

The multi-signature (multisig) smart contracts 1310, 1312 on the privateand permissioned blockchain networks 1314, 1316 require multiple partiesto sign various transactions sent to these contracts (i.e. M-of-Nsignatures, such as 1-of-2, 2-of-2, 2-of-3, 3-of-5, 5-of-9). The stateof the multisig contracts is synchronized and checkpointed in theequivalent or simplified contracts 1318, 1320 on the public blockchainnetwork 1322.

The smart contracts capture different steps involved in the tradeprocess and the interaction between the parties. For example, in theLetter of Credit application, the Buyer and Seller have a Sales contractbetween them. The Issuing Bank sends a Letter of Credit contract to theseller. The Seller ships the goods through the Shipping company andrecords the shipping information in the Shipping contract. The Sellergets a transport verification message (or documents) which are sent tothe Advising bank. The Advising bank sends the transport verificationmessage (or documents) to the Issuing Bank. The Issuing Bank releasesthe payment and sends the transport verification message (or documents)to the buyer. The buyer takes possession of the goods from the shippingcompany by presenting the transport verification message (or documents)to the shipping company. In this application the smart contracts alloweasier and faster verification of information. The transactions toupdate the state of smart contracts and messages are cryptographicallysigned by the concerned parties. Suitable checks in the Letter of Creditand related smart contracts can prevent reuse of the Letter of Credit.Requiring multiple signatures for certain smart contracts (such asLetter of Credit smart contract), can prevent fraud (for example, a bankemployee fraudulently issuing a Letter of Credit without verifyingbuyer's financial standing or collateral). Furthermore, each partyinvolved is aware of the state of the contracts leading to greatertransparency in the whole trade process.

Unlike the simplified existing implementations of Letter of Credit smartcontracts on a blockchain network or multisig contracts [References:https://github.com/sunil-gunasekaran/Letter_Of_Credit/tree/master/LOC/contractshttps://github.com/haribalaji79/letterofcredit_blockchain], thetechnique here does the following:

-   -   The smart contracts are structured as multi-party and        multi-signature contracts and deployed on private and        permissioned blockchain network. The state of the such contracts        is synchronized and checkpointed in the equivalent or simplified        contracts on the public blockchain network.    -   Offloading the smart contracts on a private and permissioned        blockchain network improves scalability, speeds up transactions,        and reduces transaction processing fees.    -   For different trades, different private and permissioned        blockchain networks may be used. The state of the smart        contracts on such multiple private and permissioned blockchain        networks can be synchronized and checkpointed on a single public        blockchain network.    -   The private and permissioned blockchain networks may have a        different consensus mechanism from the public blockchain. For        example, a Proof-of-Stake or Proof-of-Authority consensus may be        used on private and permissioned blockchains whereas the public        blockchain may use a Proof-of-Work consensus mechanism.    -   The identity information of each party may be maintained on a        separate blockchain network. An identity verification and        certification procedure is performed for securely linking        blockchain accounts to real users.    -   Smart contracts may have multiple variants (for example multiple        variants of a Letter of Credit contract) and a particular        variant of a smart contract may be selected based on additional        meta-data available (for example, trade process meta-data such        as the countries of the buyer and seller or type of trade).

The identity (and associated blockchain accounts) of each party involvedin such contracts may be separately verified through an identityverification process. A system and associated methods for securelylinking blockchain accounts to real users, as described in related U.S.patent application Ser. No. 15/863,128 titled Method and System forBlockchain-Based Combined Identity, Ownership and Custody Managementfiled Jan. 5, 2018, the content of which is incorporated herein byreference except to the extent disclosure therein is inconsistent withdisclosure herein. A user identity registration and certificationprocedure is performed that comprises receiving hashed useridentification information that has been signed with a private key ofthe user from the user, defining a seal contract, generating an addressof the seal contract, defined as a sealed user record address, andproviding the sealed user record address. The procedure may furthercomprise receiving a hashed verification record from a certificateauthority, generating an address of a verification contract from thehashed verification record, defined as a sealed verification recordaddress and providing the sealed verification record address.Furthermore, the procedure may further comprise generating acertification contract from a combination of the sealed user recordaddress, a certification token, and the sealed verification recordaddress, providing a certification contract address, receiving averification record by a certification authority comprising the hasheduser identification information and a token, and receiving a combinationof the certification contract address and the seal contract, defining areceived certification contract address and a received seal contract,respectively. Additionally, the procedure may further comprise obtainingeach of the sealed user record address and the sealed verificationrecord address from the certification contract address, retrieving theseal contract from the sealed user record address, defining a retrievedseal contract, decrypting the retrieved seal contract using a public keyassociated with the user, defining a decrypted retrieved seal contract,and comparing the decrypted retrieved seal contract and the receivedseal contract. Yet further, the procedure may comprise retrieving theverification contract from the sealed verification record address,defining a retrieved verification contract, obtaining a certificationtoken from the certification contract address, generating a hashedconfirming verification record by hashing the combination of thedecrypted retrieved seal contract and the certification token, andcomparing the hashed confirming verification record to the retrievedverification contract. Upon a comparison of the decrypted retrieved sealcontract and the received seal contract indicating they are at least apartial match and the comparison of the hashed confirming verificationrecord to the retrieved verification contract indicating they are atleast a partial match, a session certification token for a decentralizedapplication may be generated. Finally, the procedure may comprisetransmitting the session certification token to the user.

Referring now to FIG. 29, an illustration of “soft” smart contracts, isdescribed in more detail. Soft smart contracts are contracts which havemultiple variants (for example multiple variants of a Letter of Creditor Sales contract) and a particular variant of a smart contract may beselected based on additional application or trade specific meta-dataavailable (for example, trade process meta-data 1454 such as thecountries of the buyer and seller or type of trade). FIG. 29 illustratesa Soft Smart Contract-A 1450 which has multiple variants of smartcontracts (Variant-1 1470, Variant-2 1472, Variant-N 1474) and a SoftSmart Contract-B 1452 which has multiple variants of smart contracts(Variant-1 1476, Variant-2 1478, Variant-N 1480). ForApplication/Process-1 1462, Variant-1 1470 of Soft Smart Contract-A 1450and Variant-2 1478 of Soft Smart Contract-B 1452 are used. ForApplication/Process-2 1464, Variant-N 1474 of Soft Smart Contract-A andVariant-1 1476 of Soft Smart Contract-B are used. The selection of aparticular variant of a soft smart contract is done based on applicationor process specific meta-data 1454. The smart contracts forApplication/Process-1 1462 are deployed on private and permissionedblockchain network-1 1456. The smart contracts for Application/Process-21464 are deployed on private and permissioned blockchain network-2 1458.The state of the smart contracts on the private and permissionedblockchain networks 1456, 1458 are synchronized and checkpointed 1466,1468 in the equivalent or simplified smart contracts the publicblockchain network 1460.

Referring now to FIG. 30, a reference implementation of a token smartcontract synchronizing service that syncs token smart contracts betweena private blockchain and a public blockchain, is described in moredetail. The contract syncer service can be run periodically (after fewhours or once every day) to sync two token smart contracts deployed onprivate and public blockchain networks. The syncer service takes asinput a list of all accounts on the private that transacted during theday with the token contract. The syncer service syncs the smart contractstates by performing the following steps:

STEP-1: For all accounts whose token balance has decreased on theprivate chain as compared to the last synced balance on public chain,move the difference in balance from the corresponding account on publicchain to a vault account on public chain.

STEP-2: If the total token supply on the private chain has increasedsince the last synced balance on public chain, create new tokens (equalto the difference of total token supply on private and public chains)and send to vault account on public chain. Whereas, if the total tokensupply on the private chain has decreased since the last synced balanceon public chain, burn tokens (equal to the difference of total tokensupply on private and public chains) from the vault account on publicchain.

STEP-3: For all accounts whose token balance has increased on theprivate chain as compared to the last synced balance on public chain,move the difference in balance from the vault account on public chain tothe corresponding account on the public chain.

Referring now to FIG. 31 an illustration of a distributedpublish-subscribe messaging framework, is described in more detail. Thedistributed publish-subscribe messaging framework described here isnamed as “Bulletin Board”. The Bulletin Board Server 1678 manages Topics1680, 1682. Bulletin Board Clients can be Publisher/Producer Clients1670, 1672 or Consumer/Subscriber Clients 1688, 1690. ThePublisher/Producer Clients 1670, 1672 publish data or messages 1674,1676 to Topics 1680, 1682. Consumer/Subscriber Clients 1688, 1690consume data from the Topics 1680, 1682 sent in messages 1648, 1686.Data pushed to the Topics 1680, 1682 from the Publisher/Producer Clients1670, 1672 may originate from data sources 1650, which may comprisesmart contracts 1652, oracles 1654, logs 1656, sensors 1658, records1660, databases 1662, streams 1664, and events 1668. Bulletin BoardServer 1678 supports a plug-in Message Storage Backend 1692 to store andreplay messages. The Message Storage Backend 1692 persists the messagesusing two options: (1) a Cloud Database or Cloud Storage 1694, (2)Decentralized Storage Platform (such as IPFS or Swarm) 1698 with regularcheckpointing of message hashes to a Blockchain 1696. Messages in theBulletin Board can be either Ephemeral or Persistent. Ephemeral messagesare not stored by the Message Storage Backend. For Persistent messagesTime-to-Live (TTL) can be specified. The Producers and Consumers supportboth Cloud and Blockchain protocols such as HTTP-REST or Web3 forEthereum. This allows existing Smart Contracts (such as Solidity smartcontracts) to publish and consume data to/from the Bulletin board, andexisting Oracles to feed-in data from the web to the smart contractsthrough the Bulletin board. A smart contract 1652 implemented in theSolidity language, for example, is a data source 1650 which generatesnotifications in the form of Solidity events which are published to theBulletin Board server by a Publisher Client. Solidity smart contractsrequire an external Publisher Client to publish messages to the Bulletinboard. Extensions to smart contract languages such as Solidity may beimplemented to support Bulletin board APIs to publish data without theneed for an external publisher client. Topics are managed in-memory withregular snapshots on the disk which are later stored in the MessageStorage Backend 1692. A compaction process is defined for moving themessages in the snapshots to the Message Storage Backend 1692 (Cloudand/or Blockchain).

The Bulletin Board messaging framework is designed for high throughputand low latency messaging. The Bulletin Board server 1678 can bedeployed in a cloud computing environment and scaled either verticallyor horizontally based on demand. In vertical scaling larger virtualmachine instance size (in terms of compute capacity, memory and storage)is used for the Bulletin Board server. In horizontal scaling multipleinstances of the Bulletin Board server are launched with each instancemanaging a subset of the topics managed by the Bulletin Board.

As Bulletin Board is a distributed messaging framework, a trade-offexists between consistency and availability. This trade-off is explainedwith the CAP Theorem, which states that under partitioning, adistributed data system can either be consistent or available but notboth at the same time. Bulletin Board adopts an eventually consistentmodel. In an eventually consistent system, after an update operation isperformed by a writer, it is eventually seen by all the readers. When aread operation is performed by a consumer, the response might notreflect the results of a recently completed write operation.

The Bulletin Board messaging framework supports prioritized processingof messages. The priority can be set in the message header field.Various priority classes for messages can be defined and specified inthe priority header field.

It is contemplated and included within the scope of the invention thatthe Bulletin Board messaging framework may be utilized to implement theprocessing of transactions across multi-chain networks as describedhereinabove. More specifically, wherein first and second plurality oftransactions are recorded to first and second blocks on a firstblockchain of a multi-chain network, the first and second pluralities oftransactions may be published to a Topic 1980 associated with themulti-chain network on the Bulletin Board Server 1978, defining a firstpublished transactions, which may then be transmitted to aconsumer/subscriber 1688. Receipt of the first transmitted transactionby the consumer/subscriber 1688 may initiate the generation of a firstmerged block comprising the first published transactions and recordingof the first merged block to a second blockchain on the multi-chainnetwork, as described above. Similarly, third and fourth pluralities oftransactions may be recorded to third and fourth blocks on the firstblockchain and be published to the same Topic 1980 or another Topic 1982on the Bulletin Board Server 1978 and transmitted to theconsumer/subscriber 1988, resulting in the generation of a second mergedblock on the second blockchain of the multi-chain network.

Furthermore, the first and second published transactions may bepublished to another Topic 1682 defining a first merged publishedtransactions, which may then be transmitted to anotherconsumer/described 1690, defining a first merged transmittedtransaction. Receipt of the first merged transmitted transaction by theconsumer/subscriber 1690 may initiate the generation of a third mergedblock comprising the first merged transmitted transaction and recordingthe third merged block to a third blockchain on the multi-chain network.The second blockchain may have a parameter difference from the thirdblockchain selected from the group consisting of block generation time,transaction throughput, transaction latency, stale block rate, blockpropagation delay and consensus algorithm used.

Alternatively, where the third and fourth plurality of transactions arerecorded to Topic 1682, they may be transmitted to anotherconsumer/subscriber 1690, defining a second transmitted transaction.Receipt of the second transmitted transaction may initiate thegeneration of a second merged block comprising the second publishedtransactions and recording of the second merged block to a fourthblockchain on the multi-chain network. The third blockchain may have aparameter difference from the fourth blockchain selected from the groupconsisting of block generation time, transaction throughput, transactionlatency, stale block rate, block propagation delay and consensusalgorithm used.

Referring now to FIG. 32 an illustration of the consumer/subscriberactions supported in the publish-subscribe messaging framework, isdescribed in more detail. A Bulletin Board Server 1700 comprisingmanaged Topics 1702, 1704 may transmit 1706 messages from the Topics1702, 1704 to Consumers or Subscribers 1708 using any messagingprotocol, including, for example HTTP/REST or WebSocket. For Consumersor Subscribers 1708 various actions Rules & Triggers 1710 and Actions1712 can be defined. Rules & Triggers 1712 specify how to filer andselect data and trigger actions. The supported actions include SmartContract Transaction 1718, Webhook Trigger 1720, Log to External DataStore 1722, Email Notification 1724, SMS Notification 1726, and MobilePush Notification 1728. An action is performed when a message matching arule is received (for example temperature>60 or ETH price <$500).

Referring now to FIG. 33 an illustration of the BlockGrid architecture,is described in more detail. ,m is a multi-chain architecture comprisingN-levels of blockchains with increasing block-times and increasinglevels of decentralization. Level-1 1806 chain is the “fastest” chainwhich has block times in the range of few milli-second to few secondsand a Proof-of-Authority (PoA) or Proof-of-Stake (PoS) consensus. TheLevel-N chain 1814 is a Proof-of-Work (PoW) chain with slow block timesin the range of few seconds to few minutes and high level ofdecentralization. The blocks in the successive levels in the BlockGridarchitecture are connected through block anchors. A Block Anchor (suchas 1808, 1812) is a link between a block on level N-1 chain and a blockon level N chain where these blocks are linked by a cryptographic hash.More specifically, a Block Anchor may exist between a block 1800 on theLevel-1 1806 chain and a block 1802 on the Level N-1 1810 chain, andanother Block Anchor 1812 may exist between block 1802 and a block 1804on the Level N 1814 chain.

The BlockGrid network can be seen as a hybrid of fully centralized andfully decentralized blockchain networks. Level-1 chain 1806 can becentralized as it needs to be fast and have fast block times, whereasLevel-N chain 1814 can be fully decentralized.

Blockchain applications can choose to use a particular level chain inthe BlockGrid or all levels in the BlockGrid. For example, an loTapplication may use only level-1 whereas a banking application may useall levels. For high-value transactions in an N-Level BlockGrid, theapplications may require multiple confirmations on the same chain aswell as multiple levels of confirmations on higher level chains. Forexample, for a high value financial transaction on a BlockGrid network,six confirmations on Level-0 chain and confirmations of four higherlevel chains may be required. In such a case even if some blockvalidators or miners collude to validate a wrong transaction at level-0chain, it can still be invalidated by validators or miners on higherlevel chains.

The Bulletin board messaging system may be used to coordinate theN-levels of chains in the BlockGrid where messages and eventnotifications have to be exchanged between different levels of chains.

Referring now to FIG. 34 an illustration of relationships between blockson different blockchains within the BlockGrid architecture, is describedin more detail. The figure illustrates a four level BlockGrid networkwith four blockchains 1910, 1942, 1936, 1944. The blocks in a level Nchain contain all the transactions of the corresponding blocks in alevel N-1 chain or a summarized form of transactions in thecorresponding blocks. For example, block B4,0 1932 on the level-4 chain1944 contains all the transactions in the corresponding block B3,0 1924on level-3 chain 1936, which in turn contains all the transactions inthe corresponding block B2,0 1912 in the level-2 chain 1942, which inturn contains all the transactions in the corresponding block B1,0 1900in the level-1 chain 1910. Similarly block B3,1 on level-3 chaincontains all the transactions in the corresponding blocks B2,1, and B2,21914 in the level-2 chain 1942. Indeed, block subgroups 1902, 1904,1906, 1908 of the Ivel-1 chain 1910 may be recorded to and contained byrespective blocks on the level-2 chain 1942. Block subgroups 1914, 1916,1918, 1920 of the level-2 chain 1942 may be recorded to and contained byrespective blocks on the level-3 chain 1936. Finally, block subgroups1926, 1928 may be recorded to respective blocks 1934, 1940 on thelevel-4 chain 1944.

The block times (or block intervals) and block generation times of thedifferent blockchains may be synchronized. For example, if level-1 chainhas a block time of 100 ms and level-2 chain has a block time of 1second then a new block of level-2 chain may be generated after every 10blocks on level-1 chain. In such a case every block on level-2 chainwould contain transactions from previous 10 blocks on the level-1 chain.

Referring now to FIG. 35 an illustration of transaction and statestorage in in the BlockGrid network, is described in more detail. ABlockGrid network may either use N separate blockchains with separateaddresses spaces for accounts and separate world and transaction states(i.e., a separate ledger for every blockchains), or have the sameaddress space for account addresses and maintain a common world andtransaction states (i.e., a common global ledger for all blockchains).In the former case, where each blockchain in the BlockGrid maintains itsown state, the state of blockchain is stored in captured in three MerkleTrees. The World State Merkle Tree 1950 (World State Trie) maintains amapping between the account addresses and the account states. TheTransactions Merkle Tree 1952 (Transactions Trie) stores the list oftransactions. The Transaction Receipts Merkle Tree 1954 (TransactionReceipts Trie) stores receipts of each transaction containinginformation related to the transaction execution. The root hash of WorldState Trie 1950 is stored in the state_root field 1978 in the blockheader. The root hash of Transactions Trie 1952 is stored in thetx_list_root field 1980 in the block header. The root hash ofTransaction Receipts Trie 1954 is stored in the receipts_root field 1982in the block header. In a BlockGrid network with a common global ledger,the World State Trie 1950, Transactions Trie 1952 and TransactionReceipts Trie 1954 are shared across all the blockchains in theBlockGrid network. Each block 1956 of the World State Trie 1950, theTransaction Trie 1952, and the Transaction Receipts Trie 1954 maycomprise a block header 1658 which may further comprise a plurality offields, including prevhash 1960, timestamp 1962, extra_data 1964, number1968, validator 1970, gas_limit 1972, gas_used 1974, and bloom 1976.Each block header 1958 of block 1956, or alternatively a root block, ofthe World State Trie 1950 may comprise a state_root 1978 field. Eachblock header 1958 of each block 1956, or alternatively a root block, ofthe Transaction Trie 1952 may comprise a tx_list_root 1980 filed. Eachblock header 1958 of each block 1956, or alternatively a root block, ofthe Transaction Receipts Trie 1954 may comprise a receipts_root 1982field. In the third case, where a BlockGrid network uses partiallyshared states and/or addresses spaces, each blockchain in the BlockGridmaintains a private state and/or addresses space, and a shared stateand/or addresses space. Additionally, the root hash of each of the WorldState Trie 1950, the Transactions Trie 1952, and the TransactionReceipts Trie 1954 may be stored in a block header of a block on some orall of the blocks of a blockchain of a multi-chain network.

In the multi-chain network, the centralized and partially-centralizedblockchains may be executed on a computerized device, such as a server,comprising a processor, a memory operably coupled to the processor, anda network communication device operably coupled to the processor andoperable to communicate across a network, including Local AccessNetworks (LAN) and Wide Area Networks (WAN), such as the Internet. Thevarious components of the server may enable the steps

Referring now to FIG. 36 an illustration of different transaction typeswhich are routed through the bulletin board publish-subscribe framework,is described in more detail. The Bulletin Board can accept blockchaintransactions, data or messages 2000 of the following types:

Transactions for transfer of value from one account to another 2002;Transactions to Smart contracts 2004; Transactions to send messages toone or more topics or to specific smart contracts 2006;

Transactions to record key-value pairs on the blockchain without settingup a smart contract, for example, to record proof of existence of adocument or record 2008;

Transactions to store data such as records, blobs or files in ablockchain database or a decentralized storage network such as Swarm orIPFS 2010; and

Messages from Oracles, Logs, Streams, Events, and Sensors 2012.

Bulletin Board functions as a Single Point of Contact for the above typeof blockchain transactions directed towards a BlockGrid network 2020, aBlockchain network 2022, a decentralized storage network (Swarm or IPFS)2024 or a Blockchain database 2026. The Bulletin Board provides a highthroughput firehose interface accepting transactions, data or messagesat high throughput and deciding how each transaction is to be processeddownstream. A Bulletin Board server 2016 may expose a number ofEndpoints 2028 and Topics 2030 to which the transactions, data ormessages are published by the publisher/producer clients such as 2014.The consumer/subscriber clients such as 2018 subscribe to the topicsmanaged by the Bulletin Board server and receive the transactions, dataor messages which may be further sent to the appropriate networkdownstream to be processed further. Appendix-A provided shows theresults of a simulation using the syncer service. In the simulationshown, there are five accounts which transact with the token contract.The transactions are of three types—(1) transaction to create tokenswhich are credited to an account, (2) transaction to burn tokens from anaccount, (2) transaction to transfer token from one account to another.Simulation results show transactions on the private chain and publicchain, the token balances and total token supply. The state of the tokencontract on the private chain is synced with the state of the tokencontract on the public chain at midnight. Simulation results show that a94% reduction in the number of transactions is achieved for syncing thetoken smart contract states on the private and public chains.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for sharing data between blockchains ina multi-chain network comprising: accessing a first block on a firstblockchain of a multi-chain network; generating a cryptographic hashfrom the first block, defining a first anchor hash; recording the firstanchor hash to a second block on a second blockchain of a multi-chainnetwork; receiving a first plurality of account addresses associatedwith the first and second blockchains and an account state for eachaccount associated with the first plurality of account addresses;generating a first hash tree comprising a mapping between the firstplurality of account addresses and the account states, defining a worldstate trie; generating a root hash of the world state trie; receiving afirst plurality of transactions associated with the first and secondblockchains; generating a second hash tree comprising the firstplurality of transactions, defining a transactions trie; generating aroot hash of the transactions trie; receiving a first plurality oftransaction receipts associated with the plurality of transactions;generating a third hash tree comprising the first plurality oftransactions receipts, defining a transaction receipts trie; andgenerating a root hash of the transaction receipts trie; wherein theroot hash of each of the world state trie, the transactions trie, andthe transactions receipts trie is recorded to each block of the firstand second blockchains; wherein at least a portion of each of the worldstate trie, the transactions trie, and the transaction receipts trie areaccessible by the first and second blockchains; and wherein the firstblockchain has a parameter difference from the second blockchainselected from the group consisting of block generation time, transactionthroughput, transaction latency, stale block rate, block propagationdelay and consensus algorithm used.
 2. The method of claim 1 wherein theentirety of at least one of the state trie, the transactions trie, andthe transaction receipts trie is accessible by the first and secondblockchains.
 3. The method of claim 1 wherein the entirety of each ofthe state trie, the transactions trie, and the transaction receipts trieis accessible by the first and second blockchains.
 4. The method ofclaim 1 wherein the second blockchain is relatively decentralizedcompared to the first blockchain.
 5. The method of claim 4 wherein thefirst blockchain is fully centralized.
 6. The method of claim 4 whereinthe second blockchain is fully decentralized.
 7. The method of claim 1wherein account addresses for the first blockchain are within an addressspace separate from an address space from account addresses for thesecond blockchain.
 8. The method of claim 1 wherein account addressesfor the first blockchain are within the same address space as accountaddresses for the second blockchain.
 9. The method of claim 1 furthercomprising: generating a cryptographic hash of the second block,defining a second anchor hash; and recording the second anchor hash to athird block on a third blockchain of the multi-chain network; whereinthe second blockchain has a parameter difference from the thirdblockchain selected from the group consisting of block generation time,transaction throughput, transaction latency, stale block rate, blockpropagation delay and consensus algorithm used.
 10. The method of claim9 further comprising: receiving a second plurality of account addressesassociated with the third blockchain and an account state for eachaccount associated with the second plurality of account addresses;receiving a second plurality of transactions associated with thirdblockchain; and receiving a second plurality of transaction receiptsassociated with the second plurality of transactions; wherein the worldstate trie further comprises a mapping between the second plurality ofaccount addresses and associated account states; wherein thetransactions trie further comprises the second plurality oftransactions; and wherein the transaction receipts trie furthercomprises the second plurality of transaction receipts.
 11. The methodof claim 9 wherein the third blockchain is relatively de-centralizedcompared to each of the first blockchain and the second blockchain. 12.The method of claim 11 wherein the first blockchain is fully centralizedand the third blockchain is fully decentralized.
 13. A method forsharing data between blockchains in a multi-chain network comprising:accessing a first block on a first blockchain of a multi-chain network;generating a cryptographic hash from the first block, defining a firstanchor hash; recording the first anchor hash to a second block on asecond blockchain of a multi-chain network; generating a cryptographichash of the second block, defining a second anchor hash; recording thesecond anchor hash to a third block on a third blockchain of themulti-chain network; receiving a plurality of account addressesassociated with the first, second, and third blockchains and an accountstate for each account associated with the first plurality of accountaddresses, the account addresses for the first blockchain being withinthe same address space as account addresses for the second and thirdblockchains; generating a first hash tree comprising a mapping betweenthe plurality of account addresses and the account states, defining aworld state trie; generating a root hash of the world state trie;receiving a plurality of transactions associated with the first, second,and third blockchains; generating a second hash tree comprising thefirst plurality of transactions, defining a transactions trie;generating a root hash of the transactions trie; receiving a firstplurality of transaction receipts associated with the plurality oftransactions; generating a third hash tree comprising the firstplurality of transactions receipts, defining a transaction receiptstrie; and generating a root hash of the transaction receipts trie;wherein the root hash of each of the world state trie, the transactionstrie, and the transactions receipts trie is recorded to each block ofthe first and second blockchains; wherein at least a portion of each ofthe world state trie, the transactions trie, and the transactionreceipts trie are accessible by the first and second blockchains; andwherein the first blockchain has a parameter difference from the secondblockchain selected from the group consisting of block generation time,transaction throughput, transaction latency, stale block rate, blockpropagation delay and consensus algorithm used.
 14. A system for sharingdata between blockchains in a multi-chain network comprising: aprocessor; a memory operably coupled to the processor; and a networkcommunication device operably coupled to the processor and operable tocommunicate across a network wherein the network communication device isoperable to access a first block on a first blockchain of a multi-chainnetwork; wherein the processor is operable to generate a cryptographichash from the first block, defining a first anchor hash; wherein theprocessor is operable to record the first anchor hash to a second blockon a second blockchain of a multi-chain network; wherein the networkcommunication device is operable to receive a first plurality of accountaddresses associated with the first and second blockchains and anaccount state for each account associated with the first plurality ofaccount addresses; wherein the processor is operable to generate a firsthash tree comprising a mapping between the first plurality of accountaddresses and the account states, defining a world state trie; whereinthe processor is operable to generate a root hash of the world statetrie; wherein the network communication device is operable to receive afirst plurality of transactions associated with the first and secondblockchains; wherein the processor is operable to generate a second hashtree comprising the first plurality of transactions, defining atransactions trie; wherein the processor is operable to generate a roothash of the transactions trie; wherein the network communication deviceis operable to receive a first plurality of transaction receiptsassociated with the plurality of transactions; wherein the processor isoperable to generate a third hash tree comprising the first plurality oftransactions receipts, defining a transaction receipts trie; and whereinthe processor is operable to generate a root hash of the transactionreceipts trie; wherein the root hash of each of the world state trie,the transactions trie, and the transactions receipts trie is recorded toeach block of the first and second blockchains; wherein at least aportion of each of the world state trie, the transactions trie, and thetransaction receipts trie are accessible by the first and secondblockchains; and wherein the first blockchain has a parameter differencefrom the second blockchain selected from the group consisting of blockgeneration time, transaction throughput, transaction latency, staleblock rate, block propagation delay and consensus algorithm used.